INVESTIGATION OF A CLOSED-LOOP CONTROLLED PERFORMANCE OF POTASSIUM-ION BATTERIES WITH PHOTO VOLTAIC OPERATED ELECTRIC VEHICLE.

Abstract

The global transition toward clean transportation has accelerated the demand for advanced, sustainable, and high-performance energy storage systems for electric vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), despite their market dominance, face pressing challenges such as rising costs, resource scarcity, and safety concerns, prompting the search for viable alternatives. Potassium-ion batteries (KIBs) have emerged as promising candidates due to potassium’s abundance, low cost, and electrochemical potential comparable to lithium. In particular, K₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C nanocomposites exhibit superior ionic conductivity, three-dimensional diffusion channels, and enhanced cycling stability, making them suitable for next-generation EV applications. This paper focuses on the synthesis, characterization, and system-level integration of K₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C nanocomposites as advanced cathode materials. Beyond energy storage, these composites demonstrated multifunctionality through efficient photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes and strong antioxidant properties, broadening their scope into environmental and biomedical applications. Six control strategies—Proportional–Integral (PI), Fractional-Order PID (FOPID), Sliding Mode Control (SMC), Model Predictive Control (MPC), Hysteresis Control (HC), and Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC)—were comparatively analyzed for their effectiveness in managing energy flow, mitigating battery stress, and enhancing system efficiency.

The results demonstrate that the proposed system significantly improves vehicle performance by reducing battery degradation, ensuring efficient regenerative braking, and maintaining stable operation across diverse drive cycles. Among the controllers, intelligent and predictive strategies such as FLC and MPC offered superior adaptability to nonlinearities, uncertainties, and fluctuating power demands, while conventional methods provided simplicity and ease of implementation. The contributions underscore the feasibility of KIB-based ESS with renewable integration as a pathway to next-generation, sustainable, and high-efficiency electric vehicles.